France

France, or French Republic, or République Française

MICROPAEDIA
MACROPAEDIA
BRITANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR 1995
BRITANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR 1994 [Ref 1], [Ref 2]
STATISTICAL INFORMATION: see BRITANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR
agriculture, forestry, and fishing
- agricultural developments in Middle Ages
- farm buildings and expenditures
- land reform
- métayage system
- Roquefort cheese production
- truffle production
- viticulture
- wine production
arts
- architecture
  - Baroque
  - Classicism
  - courts
  - early medieval and Romanesque [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
  - Gothic [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
  - Gothic Revival
  - hotel dieu
  - lanterns of the dead
  - manor house
  - Neoclassicism
  - Renaissance
  - restoration
- dance [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
- enamelwork
- folk art
- glassmaking
  - stained glass design
- interior design
  - chairs
  - dressers
  - furniture [Ref 1]; [Ref 2] passim to [Ref 3]
  - Rococo style
  - rugs and carpets
  - tapestry
- Japanese art
- jewelry
- lacquerwork
- landscaping
  - floral arrangement [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
  - garden design
- literature: see French literature [Cross ref]
- medals
- metalwork [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
  - piqué work
- mosaic
- motion pictures [Ref 1]; [Ref 2] passim to [Ref 3]
- music [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
  - Ars Antiqua
  - Ars Nova
  - keyboard instruments [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
  - lute tablatures
  - march styles
  - musical performance
  - national anthem text
  - opera [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - ornamentation
  - vocal music [Ref 1], [Ref 2]
- painting [Ref 1], [Ref 2]; [Ref 3] passim to [Ref 4]
- pottery [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
  - Aprey faience
  - Chantilly porcelain
  - Limoges ware
  - Lunéville faience
  - Marseille faience
  - Moustiers faience
  - Nevers faience
  - Niderviller ware
  - Petit porcelain
  - Quimper faience
  - Rennes faience
  - Rouen ware
  - Saint-Cloud porcelain
  - Saint-Porchaire faience
  - Samadet faience
  - Sceaux ware
  - Sèvres porcelain
  - Strasbourg ware
  - Vincennes ware
- practice and profession of the arts [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
- printmaking
  - book illustrations [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
  - caricature [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
- sculpture
  - Baroque and Rococo
  - Gothic
  - Mannerist
  - Neoclassical
  - Romanesque
- theatre [Ref 1]; [Ref 2] passim to [Ref 3]
  - production [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
  - puppetry [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
commerce, industry, and mining
- aerospace [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]; [Ref 3]
- automotive [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
- carpet weaving
- chambers of commerce [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
- clothing and footwear
- essential oil
- European Coal and Steel Community
- European Community
- international trade [Ref 1], [Ref 2]
- mining
- paper production
- public enterprise
- signs
- textiles
- typography
communications
- book publishing [Ref 1], [Ref 2]
- broadcasting [Ref 1], [Ref 2]
- magazine publishing [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
- newspapers
- postal system [Ref 1], [Ref 2]
- printing
constitution
- distribution of power
- referendum and initiative
customs and traditions
- cafés
- Canadian adaptations
- cuisine [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
- dress [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
- family names [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
- heraldry
- judicial duels
economics, finance, and currency
- banks and banking [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
- coins and coinage
- economic planning [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
- franc
- government borrowing
- money market
- Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
- securities trading
- taxation [Ref 1]; [Ref 2] passim to [Ref 3]
education
- academies
- classical scholarship
- colonial Africa
- colonial Middle East
- degree system
- elementary education
- higher education
  - Universities of Bordeaux I, II, and III
  - Universities of Paris I-XIII
- history [Ref 1], [Ref 2]
  - French Reformation
  - medieval universities
  - nationalism
  - 19th century [Ref 1], [Ref 2]
  - 17th century
- library
- maternal schools
- normal schools
- preparatory schools
- secondary education
- training of teachers
geography's development
government
- archives management
- cabinet government
- cantons
- civil service and public administration [Ref 1]; [Ref 2] passim to [Ref 3]
- communes
- constable
- development
- diplomacy [Ref 1], [Ref 2]
- dukes' powers
- emperor title
- foreign service [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
- intelligence operations and organization
- international agreements
- Interpol
- local government
- mayor's functions
- parlement
- plebiscite
- police system [Ref 1], [Ref 2], [Ref 3]
- political system [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
- politics
  - anarchism
  - Communist Party [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
  - conservatism [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - Eurocommunism
  - fascism
  - liberalism
  - popular front
  - radical
  - socialism [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]; [Ref 3] passim to [Ref 4]
  - syndicalism
- president
- prime minister
- princes' powers
- special-interest groups
- sumptuary laws
- territories
  - Clipperton Island
  - French Polynesia [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - New Caledonia [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - Pacific Islands [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2], [Ref 3]
  - Wallis and Futuna
health and welfare
- dentistry
- medical and surgical practices
- public health history
history
- absolute monarchy [Ref 1], [Ref 2]
- ancient
  - Metal Ages [Ref 1], [Ref 2]
- Bordeaux
- bourgeoisie
- Christian Socialism movement
- colonies and exploration
  - Acadia [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]; [Ref 3]
  - Alabama
  - Algeria [Ref 1]; [Ref 2] passim to [Ref 3]
  - Algiers
  - Australia
  - Benin [Ref 1], [Ref 2]
  - Berlin West Africa Conference
  - Brazil
  - Burkina Faso
  - Cambodia [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]; [Ref 3]
  - Cameroon [Ref 1], [Ref 2]
  - Canada [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - Cape Town
  - central Africa
  - Central African Republic
  - Chad [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - Comoros
  - Côte d'Ivoire [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - Damascus
  - decolonization
  - East Indian trade
  - Egypt
  - Falkland Islands
  - Fashoda
  - French Guiana
  - French Shore
  - Gabon
  - Gambia [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - Guinea
  - Guyana
  - Hanoi
  - Hispaniola
  - Horn of Africa
  - Hyderabad
  - India [Ref 1], [Ref 2]
  - Laos
  - Latin America
  - Louisiana [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - Madagascar [Ref 1]; [Ref 2] passim to [Ref 3]
  - Mali [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - Malta
  - Mauritania [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - Morocco [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - Niger
  - North Africa
  - North America [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - Oklahoma
  - Ontario
  - Pacific Ocean
  - Prince Edward Island
  - protectorates
  - Quebec
  - Saint Kitts and Nevis
  - Saint Lucia
  - Saint Martin
  - Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
  - Senegal [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - Sénégal River
  - Seychelles
  - Slovenia
  - Somaliland
  - Sovereign Council
  - Timbuktu
  - Togo [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - Tukulor empire
  - Tunisia
  - Vietnam [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]; [Ref 3]; [Ref 4] passim to [Ref 5]
  - West Indies [Ref 1]; [Ref 2] passim to [Ref 3]
  - western Africa [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
- communes
- conflicts
  - Austrian Succession War
  - Battle of Agincourt
  - Battle of Castillon
  - Battle of Crécy
  - Battle of Leipzig
  - Battle of Poitiers
  - Battle of Puebla
  - Battle of Sedan
  - Battle of Trafalgar
  - Battle of Ulm
  - Battle of Verdun
  - Battle of Wagram
  - Carnatic Wars
  - Channel Islands
  - Crimean War [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - Crusades
  - Devolution War
  - Dutch War
  - Franco-German War [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - Free French movement
  - French and Indian War
  - French revolutionary and Napoleonic wars [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - Grisons
  - Hundred Years' War
  - Indochina War
  - King William's War
  - Moroccan crises [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - Pastry War
  - Peninsular War
  - Quasi-War with United States
  - Revolution of 1789: see French Revolution [Cross ref]
  - Revolutions of 1830
  - Revolutions of 1848 [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - Russo-Finnish War
  - Seven Years' War
  - Siege of Orléans
  - Spanish Civil War
  - Spanish Succession War
  - Suez Crisis [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - Thirty Years' War [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - Vietnam War
  - Wars of Religion
  - World War I [Ref 1]; [Ref 2] passim to [Ref 3]; [Ref 4] passim to [Ref 5]
  - World War II [Ref 1]; [Ref 2] passim to [Ref 3]; [Ref 4] passim to [Ref 5]
  - World War II build-up [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
  - World War II resistance
- early modern Europe
- economic comparison to England
- 18th-century aristocracy [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
- Enlightenment [Ref 1], [Ref 2]
- feudalism
- Industrial Revolution
- international relations
  - Algeciras Conference
  - American Indians
  - Argentina
  - Austria [Ref 1], [Ref 2] passim to [Ref 3], [Ref 4]
  - Baden
  - Batavian Republic
  - Bavaria
  - Belgium
  - Berlin blockade and airlift
  - Canada
  - China [Ref 1], [Ref 2], [Ref 3]
  - Cold War [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
  - Czechoslovakia
  - Dreikaiserbund
  - Dual Alliance
  - Egypt [Ref 1]; [Ref 2] passim to [Ref 3]
  - England [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2], [Ref 3]
  - Franco-American Alliance [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - Geneva
  - Germany [Ref 1], [Ref 2] passim to [Ref 3]
  - Greece
  - Ireland
  - Islamic world
  - Italy [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - Laibach Congress
  - Lebanon [Ref 1]; [Ref 2], [Ref 3]
  - London Naval Conference
  - Lorraine
  - Luxembourg
  - Mexico
  - Monaco
  - Myanmar
  - Narai and Phaulkon-Tachard conspiracy
  - National Action Bloc
  - Netherlands [Ref 1], [Ref 2], [Ref 3] passim to [Ref 4]
  - Neustria
  - Ottoman Empire [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
  - Palestine
  - Papal States
  - Paris Peace Conference
  - Parma and Piacenza
  - Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis
  - Poland
  - Portugal
  - pre-World War I Europe [Ref 1]; [Ref 2] passim to [Ref 3]
  - Quadruple Alliance of 1718
  - Quadruple Alliance of 1813
  - Quadruple Alliance of 1834
  - Quebec Conferences
  - Risorgimento
  - Romania
  - Russia [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
  - Saarland
  - Scotland
  - Somalia [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
  - South Pacific Commission
  - Spain [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - Sweden
  - Switzerland
  - Syria [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - Thailand [Ref 1]; [Ref 2], [Ref 3]
  - United Kingdom [Ref 1], [Ref 2]
  - United Nations
  - United States
  - Vanuatu
  - Vienna Congress
- medieval society
  - allodium
  - aristocracy
  - formation of Parlement
  - humanism
  - viscountcy
- 19th-century Europe
- post-World War II modernization
- pre-Revolution financial problems
- racism
- role of
  - Boniface VIII
  - Bourbon dynasty
  - Charles V
  - Churchill
  - Dreyfus affair
  - Edward I
  - Edward III
  - Eleanor of Aquitaine
  - Franklin [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
  - Frederick Henry
  - Frederick the Great [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
  - Frederick William
  - Habsburgs
  - Henry II
  - Henry V
  - Henry VII
  - Henry VIII
  - Hitler
  - Ho Chi Minh
  - John XXIII
  - John Lackland
  - John the Fearless
  - Leopold I
  - Louis I
  - Maximilian I
  - Mazarin
  - Otto I
  - Palmerston
  - Pitt the Elder
  - Pitt the Younger
  - Pius IX
  - Richelieu
  - Rothschild family
  - Stresemann
  - Toussaint-Louverture
  - ultras
  - 'Umar Tal
  - Walsingham
  - Warwick
  - William II
- Second Republic: see Second Republic [Cross ref]
- Third Republic: see Third Republic [Cross ref]
- treaties
  - Amiens
  - Ankara
  - Antarctic [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - Campo Formio
  - Entente Cordiale
  - Geneva Accords
  - Hunkar Iskelesi
  - Locarno Pact
  - Medina del Campo
  - Munich Agreement
  - Nijmegen Treaties
  - Pactes de Famille
  - Paris (1763)
  - Paris (1783)
  - Pressburg
  - Pyrenees
  - Reinsurance
  - Saigon
  - Schönbrunn
  - Sykes-Picot Agreement
  - Tilsit
  - Versailles [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - Westphalia
- Triple Alliance
- for an outline of the history of France see PROPAEDIA: Sections 912; 921; 924; 961; 963; 971; 972
labour and management
- apprenticeship system
- hours of labour
- migrant labour
- organization of work
- trade unions
language: see French language [Cross ref]
law: see French law [Cross ref]
military affairs
- ballistic missiles
- cannon construction
- conscription
- fortifications
- military engineering
- North Atlantic Treaty Organization
- nuclear weapons [Ref 1], [Ref 2]
- quartermaster
- Southeast Asia Treaty Organization
- strategic weapons system
- strategy [Ref 1], [Ref 2]
- tanks
- training
- Western European Union
natural resources conservation
physical geography
- karst landscape
- mistral
- physical features
  - Alps
  - European Plain
  - Jura Mountains
  - Loire River
  - Pyrenees Range
  - Rhine River [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
  - Rhône River
  - Seine River
population and demography
- age distribution
- Basques
- immigration
religion
- anticlericalism [Ref 1]; [Ref 2]
- Christian missions
- Christian mysticism
- French Bible
- Protestantism [Ref 1], [Ref 2]
- racial tolerance
- Reformation
- Roman Catholicism
science and technology
- automotive industry
- aviation
- building construction
- civil engineering
- expressways
- mapping
- nuclear-fuel reprocessing
- road system
- space exploration
- weight and measure system
social issues
- alcohol consumption
- animal rights
- birth control [Ref 1], [Ref 2]
- land reform
- social welfare services
sports and recreation
- association football
- automobile racing
- circus
- fencing
- lottery
- rugby
- tennis
transportation
- air-cushion vehicles
- canals and inland waterways [Ref 1] passim to [Ref 2]
- lighthouses
- omnibus
- railroads [Ref 1], [Ref 2], [Ref 3]
- roads and highways
- steam land transportation
- steamboats
- tunnels [Ref 1], [Ref 2]
see also cities, départements, physical features, regions, and significant persons and events by name