ADAPTATION page

What is adaptation  - definitions  | Types |  Mechanisms | Film adaptation - features and techniques |  Anthology | References |

What is adaptation?

“Adaptations are omnipresent in our culture” (H 4):

85 percent of all Oscar-winning Best Pictures …; 95 percent of all the miniseries … 70 percent of all TV movies of the week that win the Emmy awards ARE adaptations (H 4)

Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay

Cases: Romeo and Juliet, Othello, Billy Budd, Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, The War of the Worlds, Der Todd In Venedig (Death in Venice), Heart of Darkness, Ulysses, The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Animal Farm, The Quiet American, The Third Man, Scareface, Goodbye to Berlin, Raging Bull, V for Vendetta,

Definitions (glossary)

Merriam-Webster dictionary:

1 :  the act or process of adapting :  the state of being adapted

2: adjustment to environmental conditions:

3: a composition rewritten into a new form

ADAPT= (Merriam-Webster dictionary)

Trans. to make fit (as for a new use) often by modification 

Intrans.  to become adapted  adapt to a new enviroment

Roget's Theaurus: within class 'Abstract relation', within the Head 24 Agreement : adaptation, harmonization, synchronization, … accommodation, negotiation 770 compromise; atunement, adjustment 62 arrangement; … fitting, suiting

Not in: Folwer's Dictionary of Critical Terms, in Murfin's Bedford Glossary of Critical and Literary Terms, in Preminger and Brogan's New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics

The process of adjusting to/fitting for a new use involves a change of perspective, of IDEOLOGY

Example: Calypso song "Rum and Coca-Cola", written by 'Belasco/Patterson in 1906; made popular in Trinidad in 1943 by Trinidadian singer Lord Invader (Rupert Grant) with altered lyrics (according to Jean Rasquin);

and in the United States by American singing group Andrew Sisters (1944): new lyrics omit lines in which American soldiers debase Trinidadian women, and add "Making Trinidad like paradise". Not only the new lyrics but also the new singers and audience alter the ideology behind Lord Invader's version

Adaptation and translation:

In Delisle's Translation Terminology = both as translation procedure and as synonymous of “free translation” ( = 1. A 'translation strategy' where the 'translator' gives precedence to the content treated in the 'source text', independent of its form. 2. A product of this translation strategy )

Example of Voltaire's rendering of "To be or not to be" in Lettres philosophiques

Notion of "tradaptation" : (a neologism coined by Michel Garneau in his Quebecois translation of Macbeth in 1981)

"Garneau’s “tradaptations” are neither literal translations of Shakespeare nor adaptations that largely modify the content of the source text. Tradaptation, as the word implies, involves both translation and adaptation in such a way that it defies distinctions between the two practices. " (Drouin, Jennifer "Macbeth (1978)" at http://www.canadianshakespeares.ca/a_garneau.cfm)

"Garneau thus uses the methods of both the translator and the adapter to create hybrid plays which articulate a carefully constructed discourse very different from Shakespeare’s: the need for Québec’s decolonisation from both France and Britain/English Canada. He employs several different techniques to integrate this nationalist discourse into the Shakespearean text." (Drouin)

[Brisset, in Sociocritique de la traduction , shows ] "Garneau’s foremost means of appropriating the text is by replacing the word “Scotland” with either the word “chez-nous” [home] or “pays” [country]. While this substitution is relatively simple and does not in and of itself make the play an adaptation, its repeated use throughout the play ultimately creates the desired effect. Although technically the Québécois Macbeth still takes place in Great Britain at the center of the Shakespearean canon, it simultaneously takes place on the margins of the British Empire, in Quebec, with its characteristic geographical and natural traits." (Drouin)

Macbeth (1978) : " Instead of being a window onto Shakespeare, Brisset shows, the translation throws a screen over Otherness, using theatre to reproduce the discourse of home" (Simon 2006: 157, qtd. in Knutson 2012: 118)

Definition of adaptation from disciplines of Adaptation Studies (Hutcheon, Sanders, Stam, Leitch )

“An acknowledged transposition of a recognizable other work or works.

A creative and an interpretive act of appropriation/salvaging.

An extended intertextual engagement with the adapted work." (H 8) -> a broader and more positive definition

"Adaptation can be a transpositional practice, casting a specific genre into another generic more" (Sanders 2006, p. 18)

"reinterpretations of established texts in new generic contexts or perhaps with relocations of an 'original' or soucetext's cultural and/or temporal setting, which may or may not involve a generic shift" (Sanders 2006, p. 19)

As product: announced, extensive, specific transcoding [transposition, reworking, reformatting, re-mediation] (H 16)

when to a different medium : intersemiotic transposition

What is not an adaptation? (H 170-72)

short intertextual allusion to other works

bits of sampled music

As process: creative interpretation / interpretive creation = adapters are first interpreters and then creators (H 18) [ like translators ]

As mode of engagement: telling mode, showing mode, interacting mode (virtual reality, theme parks)

- telling [verbal]: “immerses us through imagination in a fictional world” (H 22)

- showing : “... through the perception of the aural and the visual” (H 22)

- participatory : “ … physically and kinesthetically” (H23)

“Adapters use the same tools that story tellers have always used … But the stories they relate are taken from elsewhere, not invented new” (H 4)

So did Shakespeare when he wrote As You Like It, Romeo and Juliet, Othello etc.

“Like parodies, adaptations have an overt and defining relationship to prior texts … Unlike parodies, adaptations usually openly announce this relationship” (H 3)

Imitatio = “in imitation of” ... 

"the practice of modeling one's writing after the established forms and styles of a particular genre ... in order to learn the art of composition. Our romantic heritage and attendant definitions of plagiarism incline us to disparage this practice today, but it was regarded throughout most of literary history as proper and useful in cultivating talent" (Murfin and Ray 241)

Parody “is an ironic subset of adaption” (H 170)

Offshoot ; spin-off ...

Negative qualifications of adaptation as derivative, secondary, second-rate, inferior, deformation, betrayal

Negative views depend on the medium: Romeo and Juliet as opera or ballet is respected (high art forms), not so if as film (H 8)

Post-structuralist notion of work: intertextuality (Barthes “From Work to Text”, Kirsteva Semiotike)

against Romantic idea of originality, and uniqueness

"any text is an intertext" (Barthes "The Theory of Text" 1981, p. 39 in Young Untying),

any text is a hypertext, grafting itself onto a hypotext, an earlier text that it imitates and transforms (Genette 1997: ix ; note the grafting metaphor)

authors are not the only producers of meaning but also readers create "their own intertextual networks" (Sanders p. 2, on Barthes)

texts as sites of intertextual relations with other texts

“texts are mosaics of citation that are visible and invisible” (H 21)

“So, too, are adaptations, but with the proviso that they are also acknowledged as adaptation of specific texts” (H 21)

palimpsest (Genette 1997)

“palimpsestuous intertextuality” : when the audience remembers past productions of the same play or ballet

“Memes” (Dawkins The Selfish Gene 1976) : unit of cultural transmission or units of imitation... like genes, they are replicators (Dawkins 191-2) but unlike genes, they change to adapt for survival

Adaptation and appropriation:

APPROPRIATE (Merriam-Webster Dict.)

1. to take exclusive possession of | "No one should appropriate a common benefit."

2. to set apart for or assign to a particular purpose or use | "appropriate money for a research program"

3. to take or make use of without authority or right | "natural habitats that have been appropriated for human use"

adaptations show a clear relationship between the hypotext (i.e. the source text) and the hypertext (i.e. the reworking of that source text), =/= in appropriations this is not as clearly stated, "the appropriated text or texts are not always as cleary signalled or acknowledged as in the adaptive process" (Sanders 2006: 26)

“appropriation frequently affects a more decisive journay away from the informing source into a wholly new cultural product and domain” (Sanders, 2006, p. 26)

"appropriation carries out the same sustained engagement as adaptation but frequently adopts a posture of critique, even assault" (Sanders 2006; p. 4), implies a "hostile takeover", and can be "oppositional, even subversive" (p. 9).

"wholesale rethinking" (Sanders 2006; 28, with reference to West Side Story)

“taking possession of another’s story, and filtering it, in a sense, through one’s own sensibility, interests, and talents” (Hutcheon and O’Flynn, 2013, p. 18).

<-> against Sanders' distinction : Garneau's Macbeth acknowledges its relationship to its source (Shakespeare) and at the same time it can be seen as a "new cultural product and domain"

Assessing adaptations:

Adaptation studies are not aimed at identifying 'good' or 'bad' adaptations. [...] not about making polarized values judgements but about analysing process, ideology, and methodology" (Sanders 2006, p. 20)

Not only “fidelity” to its source text: "it is usuallly at the very point of infidelity that the most creative acts of adaptation and appropriation take place" (Sanders 2006, p. 20)

Hutcheon proposes “popularity, persistence, diversity, extent of dissemination” (Theory xxvi)

Hutcheon draws analogy with biology: a successful adaptation replicates itself and changes

( Benjamin : “storytelling is always the art of repeating stories” (“Task” 1992: 90)

Financial reasons may lie behind adaptations: “at times of economic down-turn adapters turn to safe bets” (H 5)

The pleasure principle:

"Adaptation into another medium becomes a means of prolonging the pleasure of the original presentation, and repeating the production of a memory" (Ellis 1982: 4-5)

“Part of the pleasure, I want to argue, comes simply from repetition with variation, from the comfort of ritual combined with the piquancy of surprise” (H 4)

"it is the very endurance and survival of the source text that enables the ongoing process of juxtaposed readings that are crucial to the cultural operations of adaptation, produced in part by the activation of our informed sense of similarity and difference between the text being invoked, and the conected interplay of expectation and surprise, that for me lies at the heart of the experience of adaptation and appropriation" (Sanders 2006: 25)

Films on adaptation:

Spike Jone's Adaptation ; Terry Gilliam's Lost in La Mancha ( a making-of documentary about his unfinished adaptation (The Man Who Killed Don Quixote) of Cervantes' Don Quixote

Types of adaptations

Three categories in film adaptation (Cartmell and Whelehan 1999: 24- )

1- transposition:

2-commentary:

3- analogue:

1- transposition: relocation in cultural, geographical and temporal terms

Baz Luhrmann's 1996 film William Shakespeare's Romeo + Juliet (Verona Beach, handguns instead of swords and rapiers) = a "proximation" according to Genette (1997:304)

Michael Almereyda's 2000 film Hamlet (Elsinore is a Manhattan financial corporation, the king its CEO

2- commentary: more culturally loaded; adaptation that comment on the politics of the source, usually by menas of alteration or addition (Sanders 2006, 21)

Derek Jarman's 1979 film The Tempest (adds teh Algerian withc Sycorax

Patricia Rozema's 2000 film Mansfield Park makes explicit the novel's context in the history of British colonialism and the practice of slavery on Antiguan plantations (Sanders 2006: 22)

The full impact of this kind of adaptation depends upon the audience's awareness of an explicit relationship to a source text (Sanders 2006: 22)

3. analogue : stand-alone works Francis Ford Coppola film Apocalypse Now (1979)

Michel Winterbottom's Hollywood Western The Claim (2001) is a re-vision of Thomas Hardy's The Mayor of Casterbridge

Jerome Robbins's and Robert Wise's musical West Side Story : a reworking of Romeo and Juliet in the context of teh race conflicts New York in 1950s, particularly "resentment of and violence towards the immigrant Puerto Rican community" (Sanders 2006:27)

Musical My Fair Lady : George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion

Sanders's two broad categories of appropriations (when the relationship to the source text is not clearly signalled)

1) embedded texts (Sanders 2006: 27-32):

musical West Side Story (Romeo and Juliet) , it would not exist without Romeo and Juliet (27) but i "can and does stand alone as a musical in its own right, without need of the Romeo and Juliet connection, although I would still maintain that ... an intertextual awareness deepens and enriches the range of possible responses" (28)

Kiss me Kate (The Taming of the Shrew)

2) sustained appropriation (Sanders 2006: 32-):

Graham Swift's novel Last Orders (1996), accused of plagiarism of William Faulkner's 1930 As I Lay Dying ; also connections with The Canterbury Tales

With reference to “source” text:

Santoyo's typology:

- adaptation () “naturalizar teatro en una nueva cultura meta para lograr el 'efecto equivalente' de que habla Newmark; acomodar, adecuar y ajustar particulares a las espectativas de un colectivo distinto, separado del primero por un amplio gap socio-cultural de tiempo o espacio" (Santoyo "Traducciones" 104)

- readaptación : to a new medium

- reescritura, adaptación libre , “remake”

Santoyo uses Lefevere's “refraction” (in Zuber Page 191-2)

- recreación (Wilde's Salomé “en verisón de Terenci Moix” in 1985; Hamlet en versión libre de Ignacio García May in 1988)

- plagiarism

- recomposición : multiple plagiarism

- transposición or transfer of the text onto the stage

Hutcheon (Theory of Adaptation)

Transposition across different

– media

– genres

– modes of engagement

Media

“the medium affects the artist's focus” (H 19) : Gombrich's observation: if a painter has a pencil, he will look for those aspects which can be rendered in lines”, if a paintbrush, "the artists vision of the landscape will be in terms of masses, not lines” (Gombrich 1961: 65, in H 19)

Modes of engagement:

telling

showing

interacting, participatory (“experiencing a story directly and kinesthetically” H 12)

…

Media: verbal, aural (radio), audiovisual (theatre, cinema, TV, opera, ballet, videogame), physical (theme park), kinesthetically (virtual reality)

Narrative to narrative:

The Odyssey, Joyce's Ulysses (and then into film )

Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe 1719, J. M. Coetzee's Foe

Narrative to theatre

Othello

From the source: Cinthio’s story is just a tale of a brutal crime. Alfiero (Iago) lusts for Disdemona, his motives are conventional and clear (Iago’s are unconventional and ambiguous). Elevation of the character of Othello (invented name, like Iago’s), he is no barbarian,

Othello , Verdi's opera 1888, Zeffirelli's 1986 “opera film” or “screen opera, DVD

Romeo and Juliet: source: Masucio Salernitano's story published in Il novelino (1474), Luigi da Porto's Istoria novellamente ritrovata di due nobili amanti (1535) first uses the names of Romeo and Giuletta and the Verona setting ; adapted by Mateo Bandello (1560), and Bandello's novella was translated into English in William Painter's Palace of Pleasure (1566-7) and was the source of a French version published in Belleforest's Histoires tragiques (1559-82); which was the basis of Sh's principal source, Arthur Brook's poem Romeus nad Juliet (1562) (its preface refers to a now lost play on the same subject)

Narrative to radio play:

The War of the Worlds Orson Welles' 1938 adaptation of Wells'

Animal Farm by G. Orwell (1944), radio

BBC adaptation of Tolkien's Lord of the Rings in 1981

Lindsay Bell's 2001 adaption of Woolf's To the Lighthouse for Canadia Broadcasting Adaptation

Narrative to film:

The Quiet American by GrahamGreene (1955), into film by Joseph Manckiewiz (1958)

Raging Bull by boxer (World middleweight champion) Jake La Motta, with Joseph Carter and Peter Savage, into film by Martin Scorsese (1980) based on book Raging Bull

Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, 1920 film dir. By John Robertson, 1971 film dir. by Roy Baker's film

Joyce's short story "The Dead", turned into film by John Huston, dir.  The Dead ()

Ondjatee's The English Patient , A. Minghella film, screenplay printed

Theatre to theatre

Print to performance:

“In a very real sense, every live staging of a printed play could theoretically be considered an adaptation in its performance” (Hutcheon, Theory 39)

[Hamlet, Prince of Denmark: A Tragedy 1772, in] The plays of David Garrick: A complete collection of the social satires, French adaptations, pantomimes, Christmas and musical plays, preludes, interludes, and burlesques, to which are added the Alterations and Adaptations of the Plays of Shakespeare and Other Dramatists from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries: Volume 4: Garrick's Adaptations of Shakespeare, 1759-1773: Edited with commentary and notes by Harry William Pedicord and Frederick Louis Bergmann

 Canadian Adaptations of Shakespeare Project 

Don Juan: Tirso El burlador de Sevilla, Molière Dom Juan, Mozart's Don Giovanni, Joseph Losey's opera film in 1979, DVD

Byron's poem, José Zorrilla's Don Juan Tenorio, Pushkin, Hoffman, Shaw, Camus

Brecht's adaptations of Shakespeare plays: Macbeth, Coriolanus, Richard III as The Resistible Ascent of Arturo Ui

John Gay The Beggar's Opera, Bertolt Brecht Dreigroschenoper, Wole Soyinka Opera Wonyosi

New title given in order to indicate it is an adaptation: e.g. Ibsen's A Doll House renamed as Doll-House in production directed by Lee Breuer 2003

Theatre to narrative

Charles and Mary Lamb's

The Hogarth Shakespeare (launched in October 2015)

Stage play to film:

adapting to realist conventions inherent to cinema (naturalistic rules of probability)

Shakespeare in film

Theatre to graphic novel

Manga Shakespeare
Anthony Del Col and Conor McCreery, Kill Shakespeare (2010-) [Canadian writers ]  See Gerzic and Balfour's article
Nicki Greenberg's Hamlet (2010) [Australian writer] 

Screen to novel:

Star Wars, The X-Files

Graphic novel to film

V for Vendetta

Sin City

Graphic novel to film to novel:

The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen

To videogames:

“videogames cannot easily adapt what novels portray so well: the space of the mind (H 14)

Novel to film to film to videogame to prequel novel:

Scareface , best known for Brian de Palma's 1983 film, -> videogame , -> prequel novel 2006, <- 1932 film dir. Howard Hawks (<- first ganster movie Underworld) <- Scareface novel by Armitage Trail in 1929 <- the rise and fall of Al Capone

Mechanisms

Four Aristotelian categories

– omission, “cutting”

simplification, selection,

contraction, compression ( from long novels to plays or films)

– addition, amplification

expansion (from short story to film )

– transposition

– substitution

From verbal narrator to non-narration (showing) in theatre

Dramatization: David Lodge “Adapting Nice Work for television”

From verbal narrator to mediator-narrator in film

…

Results of these textual operations:

Ideas are made “actual”, “concrete”, “natural” to a target audience; or “changed”

“Indiginization” (= “domestication” in translation)

Ambiguities may be clarified, spelled out, or added

Ideology (“worldview”) underlying the “source” text may be altered

Thackeray's Vanity Fair : satire of social pretense > American TV and film versions : the triumph of the individual (H 30)

Point of view (immediacy of 1^st-person narrative)

interior monologue

Tone: irony

Intentions of the adaption:

– critique, call into question the “source” text (questioning the latter's aesthetic or political values)

– show respect, pay tribute to to the “source” work

– erase the memory of the adapted text (H 7)

CONTEXTS

Adaptations [like translations ] may reveal about the context of production and reception

Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, novella by Robert Louis Stevenson

1920 film dir. By John Robertson (prohibition era, sexual fall through alcohol),

1971 film Dr Jekyl and Sister Hyde , dir. by Roy Baker's film : Britain's confused responses to feminism after the 1960s (H 26)

Film adaptation of literary texts

Distinguishing the specificity of the media (novel and film)

Two contrasting views:

“Generally film is found to work from perception toward signification, from external facts to interior motivations and consequences , from the givenness of a world to the meaning of a story cut out of that world. Literary fiction works oppositely. It begins with signs (graphemes and words) building to propositions which attempt to develop perception. As a product of human language it naturally treats human motivation and values, seeking to throw them out onto the external world, elaborating a world out of a story.” (Andrew 101)

Second misconception: “film makes fewer demands on the imagination than a book does” (in reading we translated words into into conceptual images)

“It maybe just as persuasively argued that in coming to series terms with a film much more is being required of us” … film requires “that we pay attention to the intricate interaction of

mise-en-scène (what is visibly in the frame at any given moment),

the editing (how one shot of a film is joined-to/separated-from the next)

and sound (diegetic or non-diegetic, musical or otherwise) (McFarlane “Reading film p. 16)

Features of the film medium: cinematic techniques (Bordwell & Thompson)

Shot – editing – sound

Shot: mise-en-scène

the director's control of what happens in the film frame (B&T 156)

what is filmed

(shot = one uninterrupted run of the camera to expose a series of frames, also called a take B&T 433

Aspects: setting, lighting, costume and make-up, movement and acting (as in theatre)

Shot: cinematography

how it is filmed

cinematography = “writing in movement”, depends on photography “writing in light” B&T 193)

Three factors : 1) photographic aspects of the shot

2) framing of the shot

3) duration of the shot

1. Photography

1.1 Tonalities (choice of film stock, textures

1.2 Speed of motion

1.3 Perspective : focal length (deep focus, racking focus)

2. Framing

2.1 Frame dimensions and shape (aspect ratio)

2.2 Onscreen and offscreen space

2.3 Angle, height, and distance of framing

2.3.1 Angle : straight-on angle, high angle, low angle

2.3.2 Level : canted framing

2.3.3 Height : e.g positioning the camera close to the ground

2.3.4 Distance: extreme long shot, long shot, medium long shot (knees up), medium shot (waist up), medium close-up (from the chest up), close-up (head, hands), extreme close-up (eyes, lips)

Functions of framing

2.4 Mobile framing (or “camera movement” = the frame moving with respect to the framed material ; in other words, within the image, the framing of the object changes B&T 224)

2.4.1 Types

pan (short for 'panorama'); the camera does not displace itself, the frame scans the space

tilt ; the camera itself does not change position, but the camera's 'head' swivels up or down, impression of unrolling a space from top to bottom or viceversa

tracking shot (dolly or trucking) the camera as a whole changes position

crane shot , the camera moves above ground level, usually descending or rising

hand-held camera

Functions of frame mobility

3. Duration of the image

Long take = usually lengthy shots ; are not the same as 'long shot' (the latter refers to distance between camera and object )

(take = one uninterrupted run of the camera that records a single shot)

“sequence shot” (plan-séquence) = when an entire scene is rendered in only one shot

Editing = the coordination of one shot with the next (B6T 249)

Joins between shots: cut, transition

Transitions from one shot to the next: fade-out, fade-in, wipe, dissolve

Dimensions of film editing:

1. Graphic relations between shot A and shot B

similitudes or differences of the four aspects of mise-en-scène and most cinematographic qualities (photography, framing, camera mobility)

graphic match

2. Rhythmic relations between shot A and shot B

e.g. fast cutting to build up excitement

3. Spatial relations between shot A and shot B

e.g. 'establishing shot' followed by a shot of a part of this space

e.g crosscutting (or parallel editing)

4. Temporal relations between shot A and shot B

order : flashback, flashforward,

duration : ellipsis (elliptical editing), overlapping editing (for temporal expansion)

frequency :

Continuity editing (= “a system of cutting to maitain continuous and clear narrative action”. It relies on “matching screen direction, position and temporal relations from shot to shot” B&T 429)

Techniques : axis of action, crosscutting, cut-in, establishing shot, eyeline match, match on action, reestablishing shot, screen directions, shot/reverse shot

Alternatives to continuity editing

Sound

Fundamentals of film sound:

Perceptual properties: loudness, pitch, timbre

Selection, alteration and combination

Dimension of film sound:

Rhythm : coordination or disparity in sound and image

Fidelity :

Space : diegetic vs nondiegetic sound

resources of diegetic sound: external diegetic sound ; internal diegetic sound ( that which comes from 'inside' the mind of a character

Time : matching sound and image in synchronous sound ; asynchronous (or out-of-synch)

Temporal and spation relations that image and sound can display:

Possible modes of relation between the film and the text …

three :

transposition, commentary, analogue (Cartmell and Whelehan 1999: 24 )

borrowing , intersection , and fidelity of transformation . (Andrew 98)

six:: six categories (Kamilla Elliot Rethinking the Novel/Film Debate Cambridge UP, 2003)

- psychic

- international

-ventriloquist

-decomposing

-genetic

- trumping

Borrowing

The artist employs, more or less extensively, the material, idea, or form of an earlier, generally successful text . E.g medieval miracle plays based on biblical stories. E.g. adaptations of Shakespeare plays

The adaptation hopes to win an audience by the prestige of its borrowed title or subject. But at the same time it seeks to gain a certain respectability

Analyst needs to probe the source of power in the original by examining the use made of it in adaptation. Here the main concern is the generality of the original, its potential for wide and varied appeal.

This is true of adapted material which claims the status of myth e.g. Tristan and Isolde, possibly Midsummer Night’s Dream.

The success of adaptations of this sort rests on the issue of their fertility not their fidelity . (Andrew 99

Intersecting

The uniqueness of the original is left unassimilated in adaptation (Andrew 99

“cinema records its confrontation with an ultimately intransigent text”

E.g. Robert Bresson Country Priest based on Bernanos’ novel. A. Bazin calls this “a refraction of the original”

E. G. Passolini’s Gospel, Medea, Canterbury Tales, Decameron (Andrew 100)

the analyst attends to the specificity of the original in the specificity of the cinema. An original is allowed its life, its own life, in the cinema” (Andrew 100)

Fidelity of adaptation

it is assumed that the task of the adaptation is the reproduction of something essential about an original (Andrew 100)

fidelity in relation to the “letter” and to the “spirit”

“letter” = aspects of fiction generally elaborated in any film script:

- characters and their inter-relation

- geographical, sociological, cultural context

- point of view of the narrator (tense, degree of participation and knowledge of the storyteller)

The skeleton of the original can become the skeleton of a film

“spirit” = tone, values, imagery, rhythm

Sociological turn in adaptation studies (Andrew 104)

The choices of the mode of adaptation and of [literary] prototypes suggest a great deal about the cinema’s sense of its role and aspirations from decade to decade

The stylistic strategies developed to achieve the proportional equivalences necessary to construct matching stories not only are symptomatic of a period’s style but may crucially alter that style (104)

The “dynamics of exchange” go both ways: Naturalistic fiction helps cinema develop its interest in squalid subjects and hard-hitting style. This in turn affected American hard-boiled novelists like Cain and Hammlet, eventually returning to Europe in the film style of Visconti, Carné, Clouzot, and others [Cain’s The Postman Always Rings Twice (1932), adapated by Visconti as Ossessione 1943 [first Italian neorealist film]

Early 1920s (silent films): sources are Romantic fiction of Hugo, Dickens, Dumas and lesser figures … set the stylistic requirement of American and mainstream French cinema in this period (105)

Mid 1930s (in France) : ascendancy of leftist Popular Front, Jean Renoir adapts Gorki’s [best example of social realism in drama] The Lower Depths;

Post-war: adaptation from the stage (Olivier’s Henry V, Welles’ Macbeth ) -> developed new ways for the cinema to be adequate to serious theater [and] a kind of discipline in mise-en-scène

new ways : Welles’ use of interior shooting in Kane influenced Cocteau’s Les Parents terribles

New Wave (France): for the most part it avoided famous literary sources

Features and Techniques (film adaptation)–

The story can be the same if the narrative units (characters, events, motivations, consequences, context, viewpoint, imagery, and so on) are produced equally in two works. …. The analysis of adaptation them must point to the achievement of equivalent narrative units in the … different semiotic systems of film and language (Andrew 103)

It's interesting to read “manuals” for screenwriters: McKee, Seger

§ Focalization or point of view:

-> camera angle, focal length, music, mis-en-scène, performance, costume : they all can convey point of view in film (Stam and Raengo 39)

§ Intimacy of narrator-character (homodiegetic narrator, or first-person narrator)

-> voice-over : too obvious; it makes spectators focus on words rather than on the action being shown

Voice-over is successful in creating (Eddie) the moral centre for the whole story in Eastwood's 2004 Million Dollar Baby based on various stories Rope Burns

-> 'subjective shot' (B&T) position of camera on the level of the character, as in Robert Montgomery's 1946 film based on R. Chandler's 1943 Lady in the Lake : film uses mirrors to show the narrator-character [video] : this is unsual, often perceived as clumsy, artificial (H 54)

-> having a character narrate the beginning and end of a story,

-> camera represents point of view of different characters (camera as a moving third-person narrator), e.g. Kurosawa's 1950 period drama Rashomon providing four characters' version of the same incident (H 54)

->

§ Character's inner world: their minds and feelings

“voice-over” : too obvious; it makes spectators focus on words rather than on the action being shown

stream of consciousness in Joyce's Ulysses

final chapter: Molly Bloom's interior monoogue-> Strick's 1967 film 26-minute episode of actress' voice-over , images sometimes visualize what she's saying, sometimes recap incidents of the action in the novel [1:33:00]

chapter 1 “Ineluctable modality of the visible […] Touch me” (4800 words) -> voice-over in Joseph Strick's 1967 film with montage of various shots [17:25 – 21.38 ], uses screens of total blackness to match Stephen's closing of his eyes

Strick does not use Holywood's conventions to represent subjectivity (shot/reverse shot, eye-line match) (H 57)

-> visual and aural correlatives for interior events

-> “close-up” to explore “the microdrama of human countenance” (Bluestone 1957 , 1971 p. 27), to create psychological intimacy (H 59)

Visconti's Death in Venice : a close-up of protagonist Aschenbach after he's been to the barber's, showing the tension between his anguish and his desire in a “brutally tight close-up” (H 58) [1:48:00, or perhaps 1:53

Ulysses chapter 1 “The aunt thinks you killed your mother”, paragraph with Stephen's thoughts “Stephen, an elbow rested on the jagged granite” … shavingbowl

-> combination of close-up and other techniques = Strick's 1967 Ulysses at 2:10-2:36 flashback sequence of shots showing what Stephen remembers about the death of his mother, followed by close-up of Stephen, then another sequence shows Stephen's overturning of shaving bowl at 4:25 to close the episode

-> music may invoke a “dimension of depth of interiority” (Karmer 1991 p. 156, in H 60)

A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man -> Strick's 1978 film “uses sequential flashbacks and flashforwards to give a sense of Stephen's fractured subjectivity” (H 57) , “sound and avant-garde film devices can work to signal interiority” (H 58)

Howards End : characters' reaction to Beethoven's Fifth symphony (chapter 5)

the experience unsettles Helen, “panic and emptiness” passage

The narrator sums up the experience: “The music had summed up to her all that had happened or could happen in her career. She read it as a tangible statement, which could never be superseded”

-> James Ivory'2 1992 film : (at 0:11:20 approx.) we can only guess at Helen's thoughts ( H 24-5). The “panic and emptiness” of the goblins is not experienced by her; it is the lecturer who uses this as an image in his explanation of the piece in response to a question. Helen seems more bored than upset by the whole experience (H 25)

§shifts to the past or to the futre : “literature's “meanwhile”, “elsewhere” and “later” find their equivalent in the filmic disolve, as one image fades in as another fades out” (H 63)

-> past can also be represented through décor and costumes, props, music, titles (e.g. London 1712), color (sepia tints), archiac recording devices, and artificially aged or real past footage (Stam and Raengo 21)

§ Ambiguity :

Turn of the Screw by Henry James 1898 : is the governness hallucinating the existence of the deceased former employees or are the children possessed by something supernatural?

-> Jack Clayton 1961 adaptation The Innocents (screenplay by Turman Capote and W. Archibald) : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EbrFFLQcEjg

[Beginning:

opening in darkness, voice of little boy singing, Mrs Giddens (the governess) praying, her hands clasped, her face showing inner torture -> "the opening scene creates a sense of intimacy and, perhaps, trust that the governess should be trusted, but the use of darkness surrounding her suggests that it is possible that the story that follows could be nothing more than in her own mind – isolated and creating its own supernatural world" (Frayling, Christopher (2014). The Innocents (Blu-ray audio commentary). The Criterion Collection.) ]

the camera alternate points of view ;

the soundtrack is used to suggest interiority and, with the use of eerie sounds, suggest either supernatural presences or what is going on in the governess's mind

mismatches between what we hear and what we see

[Photos from Wikipedia 20200227:

Miles and Flore caption:

A key point of dispute between Clayton and screenwriter William Archibald was whether the children (pictured) were conduits for malicious spirits, or the phenomena was the invention of the protagonist's mind

Deborah Kerr caption:

Cinematographer Freddie Francis painted the edges of the lenses for interior night scenes to allow for a more closed-in, claustrophobic sensibility

The Innocents Cross-dissolve

Editor Jim Clark manually crafted elaborate cross dissolves in post-production, merging as many as four images in a single frame[14]

14. Clark, Jim; Francis, Freddie; Mann, Pamela (2014). Between Horror, Fear, and Beauty (Blu-ray documentary). The Criterion Collection.

]

But in the end Janes' narrative ambiguity is refused on the naturalistic medium of film (H 69)

§ Metaphors, symbols

-> spoken by a character

-> physically materialized in iconic form

-> translated into equivalents

-> editing may suggest metaphoric comparison by linking disparate images together (H 71)

§ Verbal irony

Barry Lyndon by W. Thackeray (1844 the Luck of Barry Lyndon), first-person narrator, parody of contemporary fashion for criminal-hero (Bloomsbury Guide)

-> Stanley Kubrick's 1975 Barry Lindon uses ironic voice-over narrator between scenes ; Barry Lyndon is much more sympathetic that that of Thackeray's (H 71)

§ Associative language in Mrs Dalloway -> Marleen Gross's 1998 film uses “associative visual imagery” (H )

§ Absences or silences:

Melville's Billy Budd :

Context : sailor Billy kills malicious captain at arms John Claggart; the killing could have been seen as an accident, but the only witness, Captain Vere, chooses not to save Billy but rather “to give into his professional fears that this act could be seen as the first step to a possible mutiny” (H 72)

Absent event = Captain Vere informs sailor Billy of the court's decision to have him hanged: The omniscient narrator says “Beyond the communication of the sentence what took place at this interview was never known”. The narrator essays “some conjectures”

-> Ustinov's film dramatizes the scene with melodramatic music as Vere asks Billy to hate him as a way of conquering his fear, and Billy replies that he is not afraid: “I was only doing my duty. You are doing yours” (quoted in H 74)

§ absence of description for a character: as the lawyer Mr Jaggers in Dickens' Great Expectations : in a film the character must be described (shown) “to visualize the character … destroys the very subtlety with which the novel creates this particular character (Giddings, Selby and Wensely p. 81)

Ideology and film adaptation

The Quite American , novel by Graham Greene (1955), film by Joseph Mankiewicz (1958)

"Graham Greene, for example, disowned the 1958 adapatation of his Vietnam-set novel The Quiet American, describing it as a "propaganda film for America". In the title role, Audie Murphy played not Greene's dangerously ambiguous figure - whose belief in the justice of American foreign policy allows him to ignore the appalling consequences of his actions - but a simple hero. The cynical British journalist, played by Michael Redgrave, is instead the man whose moral compass has gone awry." (Malford and Graham, The Guardian 2008)

Animal Farm novel by George Orwell (1945), cartoon or animated film (1954) funded by the CIA.

Altered ending: "Orwell would not have liked this one change, with its substitution of commonplace propaganda for his own reticent, melancholy satire" The Manchester Guardian, 1955

the message should be that "Stalin's regime is not only as bad as Jones's, but worse and more cynical," and Napoleon "not only as bad as JONES but vastly worse". And the "investors" were greatly concerned that Snowball (the Trotsky figure) was presented too sympathetically (Wikipedia, quoting Leab, Daniel, Orwell Subverted: The CIA and the Filming of 'Animal Farm' (review of book by Paul Thomas in Film Quarterly ) Vol. 62  No. 1,  Fall 2008, p. 92-93 DOI: 10.1525/fq.2008.62.1.92

From Bordwell and Kristine's Film Art, section “Form, style and ideology” 386-

Raging Bull by Martin Scorsese (1980) based on book Raging Bull by boxer (World middleweight champion) Jake La Motta, with Joseph Carter and Peter Savage, script by Paul Schrader and Mardik Martin, dist. United Artist

a more ambivalent attitude toward ideological issues

Scorsese makes violence the film's central theme, uses “conventions of cinematic realism to make violence visceral and disturbing”, scenes that are hard to bear in boxing matches and in quarrels in everyday life (392)

film criticizes that violence is widespread in American society (does not idealize American society), criticizes “its penchant or unthinking violence” (396), but at the same time shows “fascination with that violence and with its main embodiment, Jake” (396)

film loosely based on actual career

uneasy balance of sympathy and revulsion toward its central character (392)

uses strategies to make Jake a case study in the role of violence in American life (392)

[1] structure :

beginning and ending showing Jake in 1964 rehearsing for a recital

> the story is framed as a flashback -> Scorsese links violence with entertainment

rise-and-fall pattern inside this frame : high point in 1949 when Jake wins championship

[2] conventions of realism (394)

filming of fights : [e.g. 0:04:00- ] with camera on a Steadicam brace > ominous tracking movements or close shots emphasizing grimaces

backlighting highlights droplets of sweat or blood

rapid editing, often with ellipses, and loud striking cracks intensifying the physical force of punches

special make-up creating effects of blood

In contrast to long shots and less vivid sound effects or violent scenes outside the ring

use of superimposed titles , date, locale, etc. > quasidocumentary quality

acting : except for De Niro, the cast chosen from unknown actors or nonactors > no glamorous star associations are brought to the film

real Bronx accents

De Niro gained sixty pounds to play Jake in 1964 (this contrast is emphasized by a straight cut relating older Jake in medium close-up to young Jake im similar framing

Jake's brutality is made disturbingly attractive (394)

story focuses more perpetrators of violence than on victims

deviations from realism

viewers are encouraged to identify with him <- scenes shown from his point of view ,, slow-motion suggests that viewers see how Jake reacts subjectively

when Jake sees Vikiee with other men and becomes jealous

in final fight, also with a combined track forward and zoom out to make the ring seem to stretch far into the distance [ fight 1:33:00]

sound of throbbing when Jake wins suggests viewers are entering Jake's mind

The beginning of Pride and Prejudice in screen adaptations

Robert Z. Leonard's 1940 film for Metro Goldwyn Meyer : screenplay by Aldous Huxley and Jane Murfin, based on dramatization by Helen Jerome :

a jolly film, with stars (Laurence Olivier)

“It happened in Old England” in the titles induces viewers to a charming, idealized past, Merrie England

exterior shots heavily decorated with paper flowers “romantic impression of Britain as a garden perpetually in bloom” (Belton 182)

costumes set in 1830s more like pre-Civil War (Gone with the Wind 1939) “ a long way from the European decadence that scanty Regency garb might evoke” “evoke solid morals and a strong character” (Troost 86)

In line with Hollywood adaptations of 19^th-century novels, script deviates a great deal from novel

additions: May Day party at Netherfield > “idealizes British common people “(Belton 182)

Class problem is difused (Troost 77): Elizabeth is middle class [not landed gentry] (like a typical American), and Darcy's upper-class Pemberley house is not shown

Lady Catherine is “reshaped into a romantic representative of egalitarian democracy” (Troost 77)

In the historical context of early WWII, the joint venture of British novelist Huxley and American playwright Murfin 'strengthen the Britsih and American alliance at a fragile moment.

C. Coke's 1980 miniseries Pride and Prejudice for BBC : narrator's sentences given to dialogue, indoor spaces predominate, exteriors on real locations (Derbyshire, Linclonshire)

BBC's heritage style, historical authenticity and fidelity to plot, in early adaptations conservative filming techniques are used (shooting on sets, fixed cameras, little use of long shots, tracking shots, background music, slow pacing “ they lack sparkle because of this fidelity” (Troost 79)

series, unlike film, accommodates more “original” information, more fidelity

In comparison to previous BBC adaptations, Coke include more filming techniques > “greater visual sophistication” (Troost 80)

Darcy is clearly aristocratic

In historical context: criticism of giving “a skewed view of English life, privileging upper-class, showing a monocultural society, indulging in nostalgia for an England that never existed, and espousing conservative Thatcherite values (Troost 80)

Film as a space for display of heritage properties

S. Langton's 1995 miniseries Pride and Prejudice for BBC , screenplay by Andrew Davies:

first three minutes : shows quick cuts, fourteen different scenes , lavish use of locations, → contributes to serial's appeal (Troost 84-6)

Success based on its infidelity to novel and departure from traditional adaptation (; a book reconceived as a highly visual film (Troost 84)

costumes enhance protagonist's sexuality,

fast pace dialogue, largely because adapter does not use much of original dialogue although it sounds like Austen's

Joe Wright's 2005 film for StudioCanal and Working Title Films, distributed by Focus Features (USA) Universal Pictures (international) :

earlier time, 1797, in part to distinguish it from 1995 BBC series

camera angles and use of zoom lenses to give a sense of movement and avoide the feeling of a painting, of the “picturesque” (director notes, in Troost 86)

period dresses and location shots, but the look of the film is contemporary : modern hair, untiy, contemporary gestures (Troost 86)

for a very young audience, teenagers, (with Judi Dench and Donald Sutherland for older viewers), not a produce of 'high-culture', just for 'fun'

Austen's verbal satire vanishes to be replaced by jokey and naughty one-liners from comic or minor characters (Troost 87)

“designed to showcase a very young, photogenic star” (Troost 87)

Stage play to film:

adapting to realist conventions inherent to cinema (naturalistic rules of probability)

Jack Jorgens categorizes film adaptations of Shakespeare as theatrical, realist, and filmic

Anthology

"Rum and Coca-Cola" | Voltaire's Hamlet |  Pride and Prejudice |   Howards End |

"Rum and Coca-Cola"

Voltaire's Hamlet

FROM  http://chalk.richmond.edu/mlcintertextes/intertexualite/traduction/files/traductions_hamlet.htm

Voltaire, Lettres philosophiques (date). Lettre XVIII. "Sur la tragédie."

J'ai choisi le monologue de la tragédie d'Hamlet, qui est su de tout le monde et qui commence par ce vers :
To be or not to be, that is the question. C'est Hamlet, prince de Danemark, qui parle :

Demeure ; il faut choisir, et passer à l'instant
De la vie à la mort, ou de l'être au néant.
Dieux cruels ! s'il en est, éclairez mon courage.
Faut-il vieillir courbé sous la main qui m'outrage,
Supporter ou finir mon malheur et mon sort ?
Qui suis-je ? qui m'arrête ? et qu'est-que que la mort ?
C'est la fin de nos maux, c'est mon unique asile ;
Après de longs transports, c'est un sommeil tranquille ;
On s'endort, et tout meurt. Mais un affreux réveil
Doit succéder peut-être aux douceurs du sommeil.
On nous menace, on dit que cette courte vie
De tourments éternels est aussitôt suivie.
O mort ! moment fatal ! affreuse éternité !
Tout coeur à ton seul nom se glace, épouvanté.
Eh ! qui pourrait sans toi supporter cette vie,
De nos Prêtres menteurs bénir l'hypocrisie,
D'une indigne maîtresse encenser les erreurs,
Ramper sous un Ministre, adorer ses hauteurs,
Et montrer les langueurs de son âme abattue
À des amis ingrats qui détournent la vue ?
La mort serait trop douce en ces extrémités ;
Mais le scrupule parle, et nous crie : " Arrêtez.
Il défend à nos mains cet heureux homicide,
Et d'un Héros guerrier fait un chrétien timide, etc.


Ne croyez pas que j'aie rendu ici l'anglais mot pour mot ; malheur aux faiseurs de traductions littérales, qui en traduisant chaque parole énervent le sens ! C'est bien là qu'on peut dire que la lettre tue, et que l'esprit vivifie.

Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen (1813)

[Source: http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/42671/pg42671.txt

CHAPTER I.

It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession

of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife.

However little known the feelings or views of such a man may be on his

first entering a neighbourhood, this truth is so well fixed in the minds

of the surrounding families, that he is considered as the rightful

property of some one or other of their daughters.

"My dear Mr. Bennet," said his lady to him one day, "have you heard that

Netherfield Park is let at last?"

Mr. Bennet replied that he had not.

"But it is," returned she; "for Mrs. Long has just been here, and she

told me all about it."

Mr. Bennet made no answer.

"Do not you want to know who has taken it?" cried his wife impatiently.

"_You_ want to tell me, and I have no objection to hearing it."

This was invitation enough.

"Why, my dear, you must know, Mrs. Long says that Netherfield is taken

by a young man of large fortune from the north of England; that he came

down on Monday in a chaise and four to see the place, and was so much

delighted with it that he agreed with Mr. Morris immediately; that he is

to take possession before Michaelmas, and some of his servants are to be

in the house by the end of next week."

"What is his name?"

"Bingley."

"Is he married or single?"

"Oh! single, my dear, to be sure! A single man of large fortune; four

or five thousand a year. What a fine thing for our girls!"

"How so? how can it affect them?"

"My dear Mr. Bennet," replied his wife, "how can you be so tiresome! You

must know that I am thinking of his marrying one of them."

"Is that his design in settling here?"

"Design! nonsense, how can you talk so! But it is very likely that he

_may_ fall in love with one of them, and therefore you must visit him as

soon as he comes."

"I see no occasion for that. You and the girls may go, or you may send

them by themselves, which perhaps will be still better, for as you are

as handsome as any of them, Mr. Bingley might like you the best of the

party."

"My dear, you flatter me. I certainly _have_ had my share of beauty, but

I do not pretend to be any thing extraordinary now. When a woman has

five grown up daughters, she ought to give over thinking of her own

beauty."

"In such cases, a woman has not often much beauty to think of."

"But, my dear, you must indeed go and see Mr. Bingley when he comes into

the neighbourhood."

"It is more than I engage for, I assure you."

"But consider your daughters. Only think what an establishment it would

be for one of them. Sir William and Lady Lucas are determined to go,

merely on that account, for in general you know they visit no new

comers. Indeed you must go, for it will be impossible for _us_ to visit

him, if you do not."

"You are over scrupulous surely. I dare say Mr. Bingley will be very

glad to see you; and I will send a few lines by you to assure him of my

hearty consent to his marrying which ever he chuses of the girls; though

I must throw in a good word for my little Lizzy."

"I desire you will do no such thing. Lizzy is not a bit better than the

others; and I am sure she is not half so handsome as Jane, nor half so

good humoured as Lydia. But you are always giving _her_ the

preference."

"They have none of them much to recommend them," replied he; "they are

all silly and ignorant like other girls; but Lizzy has something more of

quickness than her sisters."

"Mr. Bennet, how can you abuse your own children in such a way? You take

delight in vexing me. You have no compassion on my poor nerves."

"You mistake me, my dear. I have a high respect for your nerves. They

are my old friends. I have heard you mention them with consideration

these twenty years at least."

"Ah! you do not know what I suffer."

"But I hope you will get over it, and live to see many young men of four

thousand a year come into the neighbourhood."

"It will be no use to us, if twenty such should come since you will not

visit them."

"Depend upon it, my dear, that when there are twenty, I will visit them

all."

Mr. Bennet was so odd a mixture of quick parts, sarcastic humour,

reserve, and caprice, that the experience of three and twenty years had

been insufficient to make his wife understand his character. _Her_ mind

was less difficult to develope. She was a woman of mean understanding,

little information, and uncertain temper. When she was discontented she

fancied herself nervous. The business of her life was to get her

daughters married; its solace was visiting and news.

CHAPTER II.

Mr. Bennet was among the earliest of those who waited on Mr. Bingley. He

had always intended to visit him, though to the last always assuring his

wife that he should not go; and till the evening after the visit was

paid, she had no knowledge of it.

Howards End, by E. M. Forster (1910)

``[T]he Andante had begun - very beautiful, but bearing a family likeness to all the other beautiful Andantes that Beethoven has written, and, to Helen's mind, rather disconnecting the heroes and shipwrecks of the first movement from the heroes and goblins of the third. She heard the tune through once, and then her attention wandered [...] and the Andante came to an end... Helen said to her aunt : `Now comes the wonderful movement : first of all the goblins, and then a trio of elephants dancing,' and Tibby implored the company generally to look out for the the transitional passage on the drum...
`No ; look out for the part where you think you have done with the goblins and they come back,' breathed Helen, as the music started with a goblin walking quietly over the universe, from end to end. Others followed him. They were not aggressive creatures ; it was that that made them so terrible to Helen. They merely observed in passing that there was no such thing as splendour or heroism in the world. After the interlude of elephants dancing, they returned and made the observation for the second time. Helen could not contradict them, for, once at all events, she had felt the same, and had seen the reliable walls of youth collapse. Panic and emptiness ! Panic and emptiness ! The goblins were right.
Her brother raised his finger : it was the transitional passage on the drum.
For, as if things were going too far, Beethoven took hold of the goblins and made them do what he wanted. He appeared in person. He gave them a little push, and they began to walk in a major key instead of in a minor, and then he blew with his mouth and they were scattered ! Gusts of splendour, gods and demigods contending with vast swords and fragrance broadcast on the field of battle, magnificent death ! [...] Any fate was titanic ; any contest desirable ; conqueror and conquered would alike be applauded by the angels of the utmost stars.
And the goblins - they had not really been there at all ? They were only the phantoms of cowardice and unbelief ? One healthy human impulse would dispel them. Men like the Wilcoxes, or President Roosevelt, would say yes. Beethoven knew better. The goblins really had been there. They might return - and they did. It was as if the splendour of life might boil over and waste to steam and froth. In its dissolution one heard the terrible, ominous note, and a goblin, with increased malignity, walked quietly over the universe from end to end. Panic and emptiness ! Panic and emptiness ! Even the flaming ramparts of the world might fall.
Beethoven chose to make all right in the end. He built the ramparts up. He blew with his mouth for the second time, and again the goblins were scattered. He brought back the gusts of splendour, the heroism, the youth, the magnificence of life and death, and, amid vast roarings of a superhuman joy, he led his Fifth Symphony to its conclusion. But the goblins were there. They could return. He had said so bravely, and that is why one can trust Beethoven when he says other things.
Helen pushed her way out during the applause... The music had summed up to her all that had happened or could happen in her career. She read it as a tangible statement, which could never be superseded. The notes meant this and that to her, and they could have no other meaning, and life could have no other meaning (chap. V ; 1989 p. 45-47 ).'

References

Journals on adaptation

Literature/Film Quarterly

Adaptation

The Journal of Adaptation in Film and Performance

Borrowers and Lenders: The Journal of Shakespeare and Appropriation

Comparative Literature

Comparative Drama

Online resources:

Adaptation Studies

Canadian Adaptations of Shakespeare Project

BBC 60-second Shakespeare

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