@Article{s25196063,
AUTHOR = {Mjahad, Azeddine and Rosado-Muñoz, Alfredo},
TITLE = {Robust Industrial Surface Defect Detection Using Statistical Feature Extraction and Capsule Network Architectures},
JOURNAL = {Sensors},
VOLUME = {25},
YEAR = {2025},
NUMBER = {19},
ARTICLE-NUMBER = {6063},
URL = {https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/25/19/6063},
ISSN = {1424-8220},
ABSTRACT = {Automated quality control is critical in modern manufacturing, especially for metallic cast components, where fast and accurate surface defect detection is required. This study evaluates classical Machine Learning (ML) algorithms using extracted statistical parameters and deep learning (DL) architectures including ResNet50, Capsule Networks, and a 3D Convolutional Neural Network (CNN3D) using 3D image inputs. Using the Dataset Original, ML models with the selected parameters achieved high performance: RF reached 99.4 ± 0.2% precision and 99.4 ± 0.2% sensitivity, GB 96.0 ± 0.2% precision and 96.0 ± 0.2% sensitivity. ResNet50 trained with extracted parameters reached 98.0 ± 1.5% accuracy and 98.2 ± 1.7% F1-score. Capsule-based architectures achieved the best results, with ConvCapsuleLayer reaching 98.7 ± 0.2% accuracy and 100.0 ± 0.0% precision for the normal class, and 98.9 ± 0.2% F1-score for the affected class. CNN3D applied on 3D image inputs reached 88.61 ± 1.01% accuracy and 90.14 ± 0.95% F1-score. Using the Dataset Expanded with ML and PCA-selected features, Random Forest achieved 99.4 ± 0.2% precision and 99.4 ± 0.2% sensitivity, K-Nearest Neighbors 99.2 ± 0.0% precision and 99.2 ± 0.0% sensitivity, and SVM 99.2 ± 0.0% precision and 99.2 ± 0.0% sensitivity, demonstrating consistent high performance. All models were evaluated using repeated train-test splits to calculate averages of standard metrics (accuracy, precision, recall, F1-score), and processing times were measured, showing very low per-image execution times (as low as 3.69×10−4 s/image), supporting potential real-time industrial application. These results indicate that combining statistical descriptors with ML and DL architectures provides a robust and scalable solution for automated, non-destructive surface defect detection, with high accuracy and reliability across both the original and expanded datasets.},
DOI = {10.3390/s25196063}
}