Universitat de València Departament Filologia Anglesa i Alemanya

 


Translation: basic notions

This page explains basic notions in Translation Studies that I use in my teaching. It is frequently corrected and updated.

Translation | principles | norms | methods | techniques | fidelity/ faithfulness | equivalence | skopos |


A working definition of "translation" to start with = to communicate a message into another language

  -> This definition reflects the view of translation as a communicative process

To Roman Jakobson's scheme of the constitutive factors in any act of verbal communication ('Linguistics and Poetics'), we can add translation as a communicative act in which the translator is both an addressee decoding the original/source message, and the addresser encoding a new message –in the target language– that is equivalent to the source text:

                       context

addresser    message/Source Text          addressee                   context

                        contact                         = translator             message / Target Text      Target Audience

                   code / Source Language                                      contact

                                                                                        code / Target Language

Thus, translation can be understood as two-stage process:

1- the translator's decoding or interpretation of the original message

2- the production (or reproduction) of a message in a different code (Target Language) in a different context for a different audience. (The contact may or may not be different: translation in subtitles uses a different physical channel.)

 

  Catford (1965: 20) = "the replacement of textual matter in one language (SL) by equivalent textual matter in another language (TL)""

 [linguistic view, focus on the idea of maintaining some kind of equivalence]

  (Jakobson (1959 / 1966: 233) = "an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language"

 [a semiotic view]

  a substitution of "messages in one language not for separate code-units, but for the entire message in some other language" (Jakobson 1959 / 1966: 233)

  (Nida and Taber 1969 / 1982: 12) = "reproducing in the reception language the closest natural equivalent in the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style"

 [focus on preserving the effect of the original]

  (Toury 1985: 20) = "an target-language utterance which is presented or regarded as such within the target culture, on whatever grounds"

 [target-oriented definition]

 (Nord 1991a: 28) = "the production of a functional target text maintaining a relationship with a given source text that is specific according to the intended or demanded function of the target text (translation skopos)""

  [a functionalist view]

 Delisle (1999) = An interlinguistic transfer procedure comprising [1] the {interpretation} of the {sense} of a ST

and [2] the production of a target text

with the intent of establishing a relationship of {equivalence} [identity in discourse function] between the two texts

while at the same time observing both the inherent communication parameters and the {constraints} imposed on the translator


This scheme of "translation as a communicative act" can be more complex if other factors and elements ( <- ) are taken into account.

AUTHOR / addresser  <- Universe of discourse

|

SOURCE TEXT - SOURCE LANGUAGE / CODE

         <- intention, function or purpose

         <- context, situation, discourse

         <- type (domain, genre, intention, mode of discourse, function)

         <- register, lexical network, tone, attitude

         <- quality of writing

         <- audience

|

TRANSLATOR <- Universe of discourse

<- world knowledge

|

process of interpreting the ST: analysis of ST in its intention, context, type, register,  audience

=

interpretation         <- situational knowledge

|

relevant meaning       <- contextual knowledge

|

extraction of non-verbal sense

|

sense

 

process of production of Target Text

|

TRANSLATOR'S INTENTION [general approach — or strategy in Venuti's terms (Strategies)]

||

target-oriented or source-oriented

|

constraints (2)

|

Translator's strategy [analogous to Newmark's methods (Textbook)]

=

[Strategies : adaptation, integral translation, literal translation, selective translation]

Adaptation (1) or IDIOMATIC TRANS., or LITERAL TRANSL.

or WORD-FOR WORD

or CALQUED

|


TRANSLATION PRINCIPLES

|

TRANSLATION RULES

|

TRANSLATION PROCEDURES

|

CONSTRAINTS (1) 

|

EQUIVALENCE (1, 2 ) 

|

TRANSLATION (2) / TARGET TEXT -- TARGET LANGUAGE 

|

TARGET AUDIENCE / ADDRESSEE(S) 



Glossary

({} cross-reference, indicating a term that is defined elsewhere)

Sense

 (Delisle) =  a clear concept ["idea inteligible"] that can be construed from the {relevant meanings} of the words within a given {context} supplemented by the translator's associated {situational knowledge}

It is the object of the operation of linguistic transfer.

On the lexical level, linguists distinguish between concrete sense, abstract sense, inherent sense ["sentido propio"] (original primitive sense of the word), figurative sense (derived from a conceptual transfer, dog -> hot dog), etymological sense

Compare with {meaning} or the semantic content of a word separate from any given {context}


Interpretation

 (Delisle) =  the attribution of {relevant meaning} to a text or segment by using {situational knowledge}


Equivalence

 (Delisle) =  The relation of identity established by a translator between two translation units [word, or phrase, or segment] whose {discourse} function is identical or almost identical in their respective languages

Compare {correspondence} = relation of identity established independent of discourse between words or sintagmas of different languages  (Delisle)

         Ex. French grand -> big, large, great, grand, vast

Equivalences always result from interpreting (or attributing relevant meaning to a text or segment by using situational knowledge)  with the goal of extracting the sense of the ST in the context of the specific purpose that has been defined for that text. (Delisle)

In the context of a conversation between Mexican lawyers, "lo tenemos entambado en la preventiva" has an equivalent in "we'll keep him locked up without a trial"

= as a descriptive terms it refers to the actual relationship between actual utterances in two languages recognised as Target Texts and Source Texts (Toury 1980: 39). In the comparative analysis of TT and ST the question to be asked is what type and degree of translation equivalence they reveal (Toury 1980: 47)


Discourse

 (Delisle) =  In contrast to language (langue), it defines an interaction between sender and receiver in specific conditions of production and reception in a given socio-cultural context with a specific objective


Constraints

 (Delisle) = 

1. rules (grammar rules, writing conventions, collocations) limiting linguistic choice in a {situation}

2.  factors influencing translators' reading of the ST and their production of the TT:

-patronage (Church, publishers),

-text conventions (e.g. literary genres),

- {universe of discourse} (shared knowledge of the world),

- target and source languages,

-the source text


Context

 (Delisle) =  linguistic environment of a lexeme that contributes to the specification of its {relevant meaning} in order to extract its sense.

Compare with {situation}, which is extralinguistic


Relevant meaning

 (Delisle) =  the specific {meaning} of a word or syntagm derived from a text segment based on the contextual and cognitive environment.

Compare with {current meaning} which is dictionary oriented, whereas relevant meaning is text oriented.

It contributes to establish the {sense}


Situation

 (Delisle) =  The sum of extralinguistic elements surrounding the production of a text

When interpreting the sense of a text, a translator should mentally reconstruct the situation evoked by the source text


Situational knowledge "complementos cognitivos"

 (Delisle) =  Extralinguistic knowledge that is recalled by translators when they are establishing equivalence, and which contributes to the formulation of the sense.

It comprises information concerning: the author and the target audience of the text, knowledge of the field, and {contextual knowledge}


Contextual knowledge "contexto cognitivo"

 (Delisle) =  The cumulative information that the translator takes into account while reading and analyzing the source text, and on which its interpretation depends

E.g. French terrible with reference to an accident would truly mean terrible, awful but not terrific (used as a term of approval)


World knowledge "bagaje cognitivo"

 (Delisle) =  The body of acquired information making up the permanent knowledge of a person. Synonymous of global knowledge.


Universe of discourse

 (Delisle) =  [shared knowledge of the world] The sum total of the discourse elements that pertain to the beliefs, conventions, and knowledge shared by speakers of a given sociolinguistic community and which translators use either consciously or unconsciously when they reexpress discourse content in the target language.

It can be difficult for translators to abstract cultural representations while they are translating. Such representations are never identical to those that characterize the universe of discourse in which the source text was produced.

Text type

 (Delisle) =  class to which a text is assigned according to

subject field or domain (administrative, bibliographical, commercial, journalistc, literary, technical, scientific)

genre or type (literary texts: short stories, poems; pragmatic texts: tourist brochures, scholarly manuals, announcements, reports)

intention (to argue, to demonstrate, to convince, to inform, to regulate),

type or mode of discourse (argumentative, descriptive, narrative)

function (expressive, informative, vocative)

Translator's intention

 (Delisle) =  General approach that is adopted by a translator in producing a text and which results in the choice of a particular {translation strategy}

The translator's approach (e.g. {target-oriented} or {source-oriented} [domesticating or foreignizing strategy (Baker 1998)] ) is based on the translator's concept of {faithfulness}. In other words, translators coordinate their personal judgement with the translation {constraints} ( =  1. rules (grammar rules, writing conventions, collocations) limiting linguistic choice in a {situation}.

= 2. factors influencing translators' reading of the ST and their production of the TT: -patronage (Church, publishers), -text conventions (e.g. literary genres), - {universe of discourse} (shared knowledge of the world),- target and source languages, -the source text)


Translation strategy

 (Hurtado) =  a procedure (conscious or unconscious, verbal or non-verbal) used by the translator to solve problems that emerge when carrying out the translation process with a particular objective in mind. E.g. use a synonym, paraphrase, retranslate, say out loud, avoid words that are close to the original. "Strategies open the way to finding a suitable solution for a translation unit" (Molina and Hurtado 2002: 508)

 (Delisle) =  A coherent plan of action adopted by translators based on their intention with respect to a given text

It applies globally to any given text and is distinguished from ad hoc decisions such as those regarding the application of various {translation procedures}

Depending on the {situation}, translators may adopt a strategy of {adaptation} or [of {idiomatic translation}, or] of {literal translation}, [or word-for word translation or calqued translation], or they may change the {text type} or modify it as a function of the perceived needs of the target audience. In the latter case, for instance, a translator can decide that a summary of a text will sufice instead of a full translation.

[Strategies : adaptation, integral translation, literal translation, selective translation]

 

Orientation (Scheleiermacher's Methods, Venuti's Strategies, Toury's Initial Norms)  

 

Target- oriented , naturalized, "naturalizador"

 (Delisle) =  related to the manner of rendering a ST in a form that is as natural as possible for the reader of the TT and that conforms to conventional {usage}. Manner of producing an idiomatic TT that does not sound foreign in any way

Target-oriented translation stresses the {sense} of the discourse using the appropriate resources of the target language. It gives priority to the linguistic, stylistic, and socio-cultural expectations of the target audience, and will attempt to produce an idiomatic translation

Translators of {pragmatic texts} [ of practical, immediate, short-term use in daily life] are generally target-oriented. This is also a basic option of literary, biblical, or philosophical translators.


Source-oriented, foreignized, "exotizador"

 (Delisle) =  related to the manner of rendering a ST in a form that reproduces the structure and form of the TT as closely as possible and that imports into the TT a number of variable linguistic and cultural elements that were native to the ST

>Some advocate adapting the TT to the constraints of the SL, or reproducing them in the TT.

Primarily used in literary and biblical translation

 

 Correspondance in various theorists: from "Comparison of terminology for orientation of strategies" (Munday 2012, Introducing: 304)

Schleiermacher Naturalizing translation Alienating translation
Hermans Target-oriented Source-oriented
Venuti Domestication Foreignization
Toury Acceptability Adequacy
Nida Dynamic equivalence (later called 'functional equivalence') Formal equivalence (later called 'formal correspondence')
Vinay and Darbelnet Oblique translation Direct translation
Newmark Communicative translation Semantic translation

 Orientations related to translation methods: literal method are mainly source-oriented; interpretative-communicative methods are mainly  target-oriented.

Translation methods and techniques (Martí Ferriol 2013, p. 122):

Literal translation method:  borrowing, calque, literal translation (including word-for-word and one-to-one translation), established equivalent

Interpretative-communicative method: modulation, variation, linguistic substitution, adaptation, discursive creation

An intermediate zone comprises techniques arranged in a logical gradation, from those that suppress linguistic elements to those that modify or amplify them (p. 123).

 

 Diagram (page 122)


 

Adaptation (on a macro-textual level)

 (Delisle) =  See free translation = A translation strategy where the translator gives precedence to the context treated in the source text, independent of its form

Literal translation (on a macro-textual level)

 (Delisle) =  when the translation produces a TT while retaining the formal features of the ST, but conforming generally to the grammar of the TL

Literalness applies to both the meaning and the form of the text

In literary and biblical translation, translators frequently retain the model of the original to the best of their ability, and consequently they stretch the lexical and syntactic resources of the target language in order to produce a literal text that is mimetic, but non-idiomatic.

In literary translation, one may choose to grant precedence to foreignization and to the re-expression of the ST in a form that remains as close as posible to the original. Such translation will make abundant use of lexical and syntactical {borrowings} and does not attempt to adapt ST culture and civilization by introducing elements of the target culture into the translation product.

E.g in a French novel, lycée will be translated as lycée and not as high school, which is the choice of a target-oriented translator who wanted to produce a transparent translation

Compare {word-for-word-translation} and {calqued translation}

Idiomatic translation

 (Delisle) =  A translation strategy that produces a TT that conforms to the conventions established in the TL and to the spontaneous form of expression commonly used by native speakers

Generally, translators produce idiomatic translations, but literary or biblical translators may adopt a non-idiomatic, source-oriented approach


Translation principles

 (Delisle) =  A general statement that provides orientation for establishing interlinguistic {equivalences} and that forms the basis for {translation rules}

e.g. a) Translation equivalence is established at the {discourse} and not at the {langue} level

b) Translators do not translate words; they translate their {sense} in a given {context}

c) Insofar as possible, the TT should transmit the same denotative and connotative information as the ST


Translation rules

 (Delisle) =  A statement that governs translators' decisions when they analyze the ST and determines their choices in the TT when they formulate {equivalences}. They are more concrete and specific than translation principles.

Rules vary as a function of the {translator's intention}, {strategy} adopted for the project, {text type} (biblical, literary), selected mode of {discourse} (argumentative, narrative)

Ex. "An advertising translation needs to take the expectations of the Target audience into account". This rule is derived from the principle that states that, 'Insofar as possible, the TT should transmit the same denotative and connotative information as the ST' The rule can be put into concrete practice by applying one of the many available translation procedures


Translation method  

 (Hurtado 2011: 241-256) = the way a translation is carried out in terms of the translator's objective or purpose; in that sense, it is a global option that affects the whole text. Method: the development of a translation process determined by a set of principles depending on the translator's purpose and affecting the Target Text on a macro-textual level (Hurtado 2011: 638). Hurtado distinguishes four general methods (2011: 252):

"Logically, method and functions should function harmoniously in the text. For example, if the aim of a translation method is to produce a foreignising version, then borrowing will be one of the most frequently used translation techniques." (Molina and Hurtado 2002: 508)

  • literal: translating word for word, phrase for phrase, the morphology, syntax and meaning ["significación"] of the ST. It does not necessarily seek to fulfil the same purpose of the ST, but to reproduce the linguistic system of the SL or the form of the Source Text.
  • interpretative-communicative: re-expressing the sense ["sentido"] of the ST while fulfilling the same purpose and producing the same effect on the addressee. It keeps the same function and textual type.
  • free: it does not seek to transmit the same sense of the ST although it keeps similar functions and the same information. It may involve a shift in categories of semiotic dimension (e.g. poetry into prose) or communicative dimension (tone, temporal dialect) because of a change in addressee (for instance, children). There are two levels: adaptation and free version (the former is comparatively closer to the ST)
  • scholarly method (philological/annotated/critical translation): this method is characterized by the use of commentary notes. The ST is an object of study; the target readership is a learned one. In the production of the Target Text it can use any of the above defined methods.

The translation's purpose and method are interrelated. An advertisement can be translated with a view to persuade prospective buyers (same purpose) by using an interpretative-communicative method (using techniques such as adaptation, discursive creation) in order to produce the same effect on the addressee. But if the purpose of the translation is to make a customer familiarized with the content of the advertisement, a literal method will better serve this change of purpose (Hurtado 2011: 253)

Translation methods are not watertight categories. A translator may pursue to reproduce the sense of the Source Text by using a communicative method, or resorts to the technique of literal translation in some segments because she or he want to reproduce some formal or cultural aspects and give the Target Text an impression of a "foreignized" text) (Hurtado 2011: 255-6).

  • Word-for-word translation: words translated by their most common meaning, out of context; cultural words are translated literally ; word-order preserved. Use: to understand the mechanics of the source language, pre-translation.
  • Literal: words translated by their most commom meaning, out of context; SL grammatical constructions converted into their nearest TL equivalents
  • faithful: like literal translation but respecting contextual meaning "within the constrains of the TL grammatical structures"; cultural words are transferred; it preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical deviation from SL norms; attempts to be completely faithful to the intentions and the text-realisation of the SL writer
  • Semantic: like faithful translation but "takes more account of the aesthetic value, compromising on meaning where appropriate so that no assonance, word-play or repetition jars in the TT". Use: in expressive texts
  • Communicative: it attempts to render the exact contextual meaning in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership. Use: in informative and vocative texts
  • Idiomatic translation: Reproduces the SL ‘message’ but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialism and idiom where these do not exist in the original (e.g. Stuart Gilbert’s ‘natural’ translation)
  • Free translation: Reproduces the matter without the manner, the content without the form

Only semantic and communicative translation fulfil the two main objectives of translation: accuracy and economy

SOURCE LANGUAGE
Word-for-word translation
Literal translation
Faithful translation
Semantic translation
Communicative translation
Idiomatic translation
Free translation
Adaptation
TARGET LANGUAGE


Translation techniques / Translation procedures  

 (Molina and Hurtado) =  "the way micro-units of the text are translated" (508); "the result of a choice made by a translator, its validity will depend on various questions related to the context, the purpose of the translation, audience expectations" (509). Translation techniques "are procedures to analyse and classify how translation equivalence works. ... They affect the result of the translation, ... affect micro-units of text, ... are by nature discursive and contextual, ... are functional, ... are classified by comparison with the original " (509).

 (Delisle) =  Translation procedures are methods applied by translators when they formulate an equivalence for the purpose of transferring elements of meaning from the Source Text (ST) to the Target Text (TT): loan, calque. literal translation, transposition, modulation, equivalence, adaptation

In contrast to translation strategies (the translators' global approach or plan of action on a given text, according to their intention), translation procedures are used for sentences and smaller units of language within that text.

 

Register

 (Delisle) =  A property of {discourse} that takes into account the nature of relationships among speakers, their socio-cultural level, the subjects treated and the degre of formality and familiarity for a given utterance or text

'sanitary facility' - elevated register

'restroom, WC' - neutral

'toilet' - familiar

'john, loo' - colloquial

Register is particularly apparent with respect to lexicon. Also indicative of register are some gramatical and synatactical markers, such as double negatives ('and don't nobody sneez!'), non-standard forms ('it ainpt me'), or self-conscious hyper-correctness ('it was i who did the deed')

 

Fidelity / Faithfulness

 (Delisle) =  The propriety of a translation that, depending on the {translator's intention}5, respects the presumed sense of the Source Text as much as possible, and whose expression in the Target Text conforms to appropriate language {usage}

The criteria to judge the faithfulness of a text also vary according to

-its subject,

-the {translation strategy} adopted,

-the precision of the information communicated

- {text type},

- the function of the text,

- the use of the text

- the text's idiosyncrasies, textuality, literary qualities, literary trends,

-the sociohistorical context, [or {situation}]

-the perspective of the target audience,

- the {norms}

- the {universe of discourse}

Usage

 (Delisle) =  Standard usage dictates that a speaker will say "It's me" whereas formal rules dictate the pedantic but little used "It is I".

Usage, therefore, is a linguistic or extralinguistic pattern of acceptable speech observed by the majority of speakers , during a given period and within a specified social milieu.

 

Norms

 (Toury) =  regularities of translation behaviour in recurrent situations (1978, revised 1995/ 2004: 207) that can be observed in the process of translation and in actual translation products in a given social-cultural setting. (E.g. indirect translation is accepted or permitted in a period when a source language is little known among target educated readers.)

Three kinds of interrelated norms: initial norms (the translator's orientation towards the norms of Source Text or those of the Target Text); preliminary norms (policy of selection of texts; directness of translation); operational norms (matricial norms that govern the completness of the target text, and 'text-linguistic' norms that govern the linguistic choices in formulating the Target Text)

It is the norms that determine the type and extent of 'equivalence' manifested by actual translations (Toury 1995/ 2004: 204, 210)

Translation is seen as an instance of social behaviour, governed by norms (shared values as to what is adequate or inadequate formulated as instructions as to what is forbidden, permitted behaviour in a given situation -- in this sense, norms can serve as criteria for 'evaluation'). Translations are subject to socio-cultural constraints or norms, intersubjective factors that stand between 'rules' and 'idiosyncrasies' on a graded continuum, and as a norm-governed behaviour we can observe patterns and regularities (206-7). The focus lies on the norms of the Target Culture.

Initial norms (207-8): tendency to subscribe to the norms of the source text, adequate translation ; to subscribe to the norms of the target text, acceptable translation. [Concepts related to Schleiermacher's 'methods' or orientations]. Adequacy-oriented translation involves shifts from the source text, with non-obligatory shifts tending to constitute the majority

Preliminary norms (209): Translation policy in the choice of text types and individual texts. Directness of translation: is indirect translation permitted? what are the preferred/tolerated/prohibited mediating languages? Is there a tendency to mark a translated work as having been mediated or is this fact ignored/camouflaged/denied?

Operational norms (209-210): They direct the decisions during the act of translation itself. They govern the relationships between Source Text and Target Text, i.e. what is more likely to remain invariant and what will change (209)

- matricial norms: matrix of the text refers to the modes of distributing the linguistic material in the text: Degree of fullness of the translation: omissions, additions, changes of location, changes of segmentation (in chapters, paragraphs)

- textual-linguistic norms: they govern the selection of material to formulate the Target Text. General: they apply to translation qua translation. Particular: they pertain to a particular text type and mode of translation only. E.g. replacement of source metaphors ; binomials of near-synonyms as translational replacement

These three groups of norms are interrelated and these relationships are not fixed and given.

Norms are unstable, changing entities. Three types of competing norms: the ones that dominate the centre of the system (mainstream), the remnants of the previous sets of norms, and the rudiments of new ones that stand in the periphery (205). Translations can be described as "dated", "old-fashioned", trendy, avant-garde, mainstream.

Studying translational norms (213-15): Norms are to be reconstructed. What is available for study is not the norms themselves but norm-governed instances of behaviour, the products of such behaviour. Sources for reconstructing translation norms:

Textual: the translated texts themselves. Inventories of translations (for preliminary norms)

Extratextual: statements made by translators, editors, etc.; semi-theoretical or critical formulations; critical appraisals; normative pronouncements (they lean toward persuasion and propaganda); gaps or contradictions between explicit arguments and actual behaviour (the declaration of intent often postdates the translation event and may be misleading)

A representative case in R. Weissbord's 1989 Trends in the Translation of Prose Fiction from English to Hebrew 1958-1980

Students can establish what relations there are between norms pertaining to various domains by correlating their individual findings and weighing them against each other.

A translator's behaviour cannot be expected to be fully systematic (2015)

 (Delisle) =  1. One of the set of linguistic conventions that governs the production of utterances or texts

  2. As synonymous of correct> or proper usage: "A quarter past eight" is correct usage, whereas "15 minutes after eight" while grammatically correct, is not proper usage.

norm  = Any unmarked current convention that is observed in a linguistic community and that constitutes the most probable formulation of a {concept} in a given communication {situation}3


Dynamic equivalence

 =  one of the principles or orientations in translation that aims at producing in the target reader an effect similar to that produced in the source reader (Nida 1964: 159-166). Formulated by Nida in opposition to "formal equivalence", focused on the message itself, in both form and content" (Nida 1964: 159). A dynamic-equivalence translation "is the closest natural equivalent to the source-language message" (Nida 1964). Dynamic equivalence is also understood as a pragmatic equivalence (Kenney, in Baker 1998) and is related to the domesticating or target-oriented translation strategy (Venuti 1995).


Formal correspondence

(Catford 1975) = the relationship between linguistic units of a Source Language system and units in a Target Language system (here system in the Saussurian sense of langue), so that the TL element acts linguistically in the same way as the SL element does in its language system: e.g. there is formal correspondence between English cat and French chat in their respective language systems, but actual translation of cat may differ depending on the Target Text context, such as animal, créature, etc. (Munday 2009; 190)


Shifts

= deviations from the Source Text at different levels: graphology, phonology, grammar (transitivity, modality), lexis, stylistic elevation, cohesion (types of cohesive markers, levels of explicitness), coherence (in the sense of "the realization of the text's meaning potential" [Blum-Kulka] with respect to subject-matter, genre, any possible world evoked or presupposed).

Some shifts are obligatory, while other are non-obligatory and can be motivated by sociocultural factors (Toury 1995), stylistic or ideological reasons.

Toury's target-oriented study seeks to describe the ways in which various shifts constitute a type of equivalence that reflects target norms at a certain historical moment = to explain the 'acceptability of the translation.

(Catford 1965: 73-6) = "departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL" due to systemic differences of the languages .


Polysystem theory

= A model for the analysis of the position, role and significance of translated literature within the target literary system, that applies the concept of 'polysystem' as formulated by Russian Formalists.

Its main proponent is Itamar Even-Zohar (1978 and 1990).

From the Formalist notion of 'system' as a structure of interrelated elements and of 'systems of systems' (encompassing various levels of phenomena such as individual literary works, genres, traditions, a whole national literature, artistic, religious, political systems), Even-Zohar considers translated literature (the body of individual translated works) as a system that works within the overall literary 'polysystem' of the target culture. This 'polysystem' is made up of component systems that mutate dynamically, interact hierarchically, and are in competition for a dominant position (the centre as opposed to the periphery, conservative or 'secondary' as opposed to innovative or 'primary'). The literary polysystem comprises not only canonized genres and works but also low-prestige genres such as children's literature, popular fiction and translated works (Shuttleworth 1998: 177). The study of this 'polysystem' is mainly descriptive, analyzes the factors that govern the production and reception of translated works while avoiding value judgments: principles of selection of what is and is not translated dictated by dominant tastes and poetics; circumstances that condition the position of translated literature (incipient or peripheral literary systems that use translation as a source of literary models to be imported, thus making translated literature occupy a central position); tendencies in translated works to maintain, conform or debunk original or traditional literary models.

The most significant extension of the model is Toury's 1980 notion of translation norms, and an important example of this approach is Hermans' 1985 collection of descriptive essays that contibute to the idea of "translation as the manipulation of literature" (Shuttleworth 1998: 179).


Skopos / Skopos

= "a technical term for the aim or purpose of a translation" (Vermeer 1989 / 2000: 221), the aim attributed to the translation regarded as a purposeful action (224), "the goal or purpose, defined by the commission [of the translation] and if necessary adjusted by the translator" (230)". "Every translation presupposes a commission, even though it may be set by the translator to himself (I will translate this keeping close to the original...). " (228)

"the skopos theory maintains that every text has a given goal, function or intention, and also an assumed set of addressees (Vermeer 1989 / 2000: 227)

A newspaper reports and its translation have the purpose to inform their recipients: "the translation thus has to be comprehensible, in the right sense, to the expected readership, i.e. the set of addressees." (Vermeer 1989 / 2000: 226)

In skopos theory, skopos is decisive factor in determining decisions in the translation process. (221)

In literary translation, "... one possible goal (skopos) would certainly be precisely to preserve the breadth of interpretation of the source text" (Vermeer 1989 / 2000: 226-7). A common and "perfectly legitimate goal", but one among other possible goals, is "maximally faithful imitation of the original" (228).

In the translation of drama, the skopos can be the performance on the stage, or the book format (Marco 2002: 237-9)

"The important point is that a given source text does not have one correct or best translation only (Vermeer 1979 and 1983:62-88)" (228).

"The notion of skopos can in fact be applied in three ways, and thus have three senses: it may refer to

a. the translation process, and hence the goal of this process;

b. the translation result, and hence the function of the translatum;

c. the translation mode, and hence the intention of this mode.

Additionally, the skopos may of course also have sub-skopoi." (Vermeer 1989 / 2000: 224)

"a translatum [the resulting translated text] is primarily determined by its skopos or its commission, accepted by the translator as being adequate to the goal of the action. As we have argued, a translatum is not ipso facto a 'faithful' imitation of the source text. 'Fidelity' to the source text (whatever the interpretation or definition of fidelity) is one possible and legitimate skopos or commission." (Vermeer 1989 / 2000: 230).

An old French textbook had a piece about a lawsuit concerning an inheritance of considerable value. Someone had bequeathed a certain sum to two nephews. The will had been folded when the ink was still wet, so that a number of small ink-blots had appeared in the text. In one place, the text could read either as deux 'two' or d'eux 'of them'. The lawsuit was about whether the sentence in question read ' chacun deux cent mille francs 'to each, two hundred thousand francs,' or ' chacun d'eux cent mille francs 'to each of them, one hundred thousand francs'. Assume that the case was being heard in, say, a German court of law, and that a translation of the will was required. The skopos (and commission) would obviously be to translate in a 'documentary' way, so that the judge would understand the ambiguity. The translator might for instance provide a note or comment to the effect that two readings were possible at the point in question, according to whether the apostrophe was interpreted as an inkblot or not, and explain them (rather as I have done here).' Now assume a different context, where the same story occurs as a minor incident in a novel. In this case a translator will surely not wish to interrupt the flow of the narrative with an explanatory comment, but rather try to find a target language solution with a similar kind of effect, e.g. perhaps introducing an ambiguity concerning the presence or absence of a crucial comma, so that 2000,00 francs might be interpreted either as 2000 or as 200000 francs. Here the story is being used 'instrumentally'; the translation does not need to reproduce every detail, but aims at an equivalent effect. The two different solutions are equally possible and attainable because each conforms to a different skopos. And this is precisely the point of the example: one does not translate a source text in a void, as it were, but always according to a given skopos or commission. (Vermeer 1989 / 2000: 231-2).


Unit of translation

= the stretch of source text on which the translator focuses attention in order to represent it as a whole in the target language (Lörscher 1993: 209)


Bibliography

For further bibliography see "Bibliography on Translation"